Quetelet, Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques (1796-1874)

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L.A.J. Quetelet (1796-1874)

Mathematician, statistician and meteorologist born on 22 February 1796 in Ghent and died on 17 February 1874 in Brussels.


Biography

Quetelet was born in Ghent on 22 February 1796 and died in Brussels on 22 January 1874. His father, François-Augustin-Jacques-Henri Quetelet, originally from Ham in Picardy, was employed by the city of Ghent and died in 1803. His mother was Anne-Françoise Vandervelde.[1]. He was taught French at the Lycée in Ghent, where his classmate was Germinal-Pierre Dandelin, with whom he became friends. [2].
Quetelet returned in 1813 as a teacher of mathematics, drawing and grammar at the Oudenaarde School of Public Instruction. [3] The following year, he returned to his native town to teach at the newly created municipal college, which replaced the high school in place before the fall of the French Empire. He was appointed on 22 February 1815 as a professor of mathematics. [4]
In 1816, Dandelin and Quetelet wrote a play that was performed twice. Following the creation of the University of Ghent, Quetelet began studying science in 1817 on the advice of Jean-Guillaume Garnier, and on 24 July 1819 he was proclaimed Doctor of Science. [5]

In 1819 he was appointed professor by Anton-Reinhard Falck and took up the chair of elementary mathematics at the Athenaeum of Brussels. He also made contact with the important scientists of the time, such as Van Mons, de Nieuport and Kickx. At this time, he sent a memoir, De quelques propriétés nouvelles de la focale et de quelques autres courbes, to the Académie royale des Sciences et Belles-Lettres de Bruxelles, of which he was elected a member on 1 February 1820. [6] In 1822, he accompanied Jean Kickx to the Han caves at the Academy's request.

In 1823, Quetelet initiated the process of setting up an observatory in Brussels. [7] Falck encouraged the initiative and sent him to France, England and Germany to meet foreign scientists and to obtain efficient equipment. [8] He was in contact with, among others, the French astronomer Alexis Bouvard (1767-1843), the scientists Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827) and Joseph Fourier (1768-1830). As a result of these encounters, he contributed to the Revue encyclopédique. [9]
In 1826, he took part in the setting up of a science teaching programme at the Musée des sciences et des lettres in Brussels. [10] In 1827, he also taught astronomy, history of science and anatomy.

From 1824 onwards, he was in charge of higher mathematics courses at the Athenaeum of Brussels. His pupils included Nerenburger , Verhulst, Jules Kindt, Plateau, Morren and Wesmael. [11]
A lover of literature, Quetelet became a member of the Société de Littérature and wrote plays, poems, fables and romances with Dandelin.[12].

On 20 September 1825, he married the niece of Jean-Baptiste Van Mons, Cécile-Virginie Curtet with whom he had two children: Ernest (1825-1878) and Isaure (1826-1860). In the same year, he founded the journal Correspondance mathématique et physique with Garnier. [13]

In 1826, the steps towards the creation of the Brussels Observatory were accelerated. The following year, Quetelet travelled to England (London, Greenwich, Oxford, Cambridge and Edinburgh) to find suitable equipment and made contact with many scientists during these trips. On his return, he reproduced before the Academy two experiments he had witnessed in London: the first concerned the rotational movement of a lens moving down an inclined plane and the second the demonstration of some singular effects depending on the permanent axes of rotation in bodies of different shapes. [14].
In 1827, following his research in statistics, Quetelet called for a complete census of the population, which was decreed in 1828 for the first of January 1830. [15]

The Brussels Observatory. Source: Le mouvement scientifique.

In 1828, he was appointed director of the Brussels Observatory [16], the construction of which had begun in 1827, and gave up his teaching posts to devote himself to scientific research. In September, he began his first observations on magnetism in the gardens of the institution. [17] In 1829, he travelled to Amsterdam, Hamburg, Bremen, Berlin, Dresden, Leipzig, Weimar, Göttingen, Heidelberg, Mannheim, Bonn, Cologne and Maastricht to repeat his experiments. He continued his journey the following year through Paris, Geneva, Milan, Genoa, Florence, Rome, Naples, Bologna, Venice, Munich and Frankfurt. [18]

The revolution of 1830 delayed the construction of the Observatory, so Quetelet devoted himself to his statistical studies. In 1831, he was a member of the commission for the reorganisation of education in Belgium and of the commission for the Museum of Arts and Industry. In 1832, the Observatory was finally able to open its doors, and Quetelet organised the observation work which effectively began in 1833. He created the Annuaire de l'Observatoire and the Annales de l'Observatoire where the studies and observations made in the institute are recorded. [19]

In 1834, because of his role as a civil servant, he was offered to teach at the Université libre de Bruxelles, but he declined. The same year, he was elected perpetual secretary of the Academy. He published the first Annuaires de l'Académie. He also reformed and reorganised the Académie to bring it into line with the cultural needs of his time. [20]
In the same year, he proposed to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the constitution of a statistical section. On this occasion he wrote, at the request of the Association, an Overview of the present state of the mathematical sciences in Belgium. In 1835, he was one of the co-founders of the Royal Statistical Society of Great Britain. [21].

In 1836, he was appointed professor of astronomy and geodesy at the École Militaire and the following year, at the request of Leopold I, he gave lessons to the Princes Ernest and Albert of Saxe-Coburg. In 1839, on behalf of the government, he went to Paris and Italy to verify the conformity of weights and measures by comparing Belgian standards with those of France and Italy. In 1841, he was appointed president of the Central Commission of Statistics. Quetelet initiated a general census of the population, industry and agriculture which has been carried out every ten years since 1846. [22]
In 1853, Quetelet was elected president of the International Maritime Conference [23] and of the first International Congress of Statistics, which he also initiated. [24] This congress brought together 130 participants of 26 different nationalities and led to the creation of the International Institute of Statistics in 1885. In the same year, he was appointed to direct the operations necessary for the determination of longitudes between the Brussels and Greenwich observatories.
In July 1855, Quetelet suffered a stroke which forced him to abandon some of his activities.

From 1857 to 1872, he chaired the statistical congresses. [25] Quetelet was president of the Cercle artistique et littéraire de Bruxelles for many years and a member of a hundred or so learned societies, including the American Statistical Association [26] and the Académie des sciences morales et politiques de l'Institut de France.
He died on 17 February 1874 in Brussels. [27]


Works

Mathematics

The subject of Quetelet's thesis in view of becoming a doctor of science is exclusively mathematical. The first part of this work is concerned with the locus of the centres of a series of circles tangent to two given circles. In the second part, it reveals the existence of the focal point, a curve of the third degree of which Quetelet gives the equation and the characteristics. On 4 February 1829, he presented a final mathematical paper: Démonstration et développement des principes fondamentaux de la théorie des caustiques secondaires, meaning that all his work on mathematics only spans a period of 10 years.

Astronomy

As early as 1824 Quetelet began to take an interest in the study of shooting stars. [28] In 1839 he presented to the Academy a Nouveau Catalogue des principales apparatitions d'étoiles filantes[29] of which he published three editions. In 1836, Quetelet announced to the Academy the observation on the night of 10 August of a "greater frequency of meteors". This was the discovery of the Perseids and the periodicity of shooting stars.
Installed at the Brussels Observatory, in 1832, Quetelet observed the passage of Mercury over the sun, and made the first observations of sunspots in Belgium.

Science popularisation

The courses given by Quetelet led him to write various popular treatises, Astronomie élémentaire, Instructions populaires sur le calcul des probabilités and Astronomie populaire.
Quetelet also played an important role in the publication of the Encylopédie Populaire, edited by Alexandre Jamar between 1850 and 1852, and for which Quetelet was responsible for the series on science and medicine. He published three volumes: Probabilités et arithmétique sociale, Astronomie and (with J. Plateau) Physique [30].

Statistics

Quetelet was interested in statistics, especially in demographic matters. In 1827, he presented his Recherches sur la population, les naissances, les décès, les prisons, les dépôts de mendicité, etc., dans le royaume des Pays-Bas to the Académie, and two years later Recherches statistiques sur le royaume des Pays-Bas
He also collaborated with Ed. Smits, director of general statistics, on, among other things, La reproduction et la mortalité de l'homme aux différents âges et sur la population de la Belgique, but also on La statistique des tribunaux de la Belgique pendant les années 1826 à 1831.
In 1830, Quetelet became interested in the phenomena of human birth rate and mortality with a view to identifying laws governing the moral and physical development of man. [31] In his 1832 work "Recherches sur le poids de l'homme aux différens âges" he launched the idea of what later came to be known as the so-called "Quetelet-index" and is nowadays known as the Body-Mass-Index (BMI). [32] In 1835, he combined his work on human statistics and published Sur l’homme et le développement des ses facultés, ou Essais de physique sociale t. 1 and t. 2 [33]. In this work Quetelet developed the notion of the "average man", which is why this work is regarded as a standard work among sociologists to this day.
In 1845, he wrote a note Sur l’appréciation des documents statistiques et en particulier sur l’appréciation des moyennes. [34]
In 1846, he published a development of the lessons he had given to Princes Ernest and Albert in 1837, in Lettres à S.A.R. le duc régnant de Saxe-Cobourg et Gotha, sur la théorie des probabilités appliquée aux sciences morales et politiques [35]. In it, he set out his theory of probability, averages and limits, constant, variable and accidental causes and statistics.
In 1871, he recorded all the observations on the proportions of the human body that he had made from 1849 to 1853 in l'Anthropométrie ou mesures des différentes facultés de l’homme.
From 1859 to 1866, he published several mortality tables. [36].
From 1860 to 1869, he also wrote several works on general statistics.[37].

Politics and sociology

Statistical research raises many philosophical problems that Quetelet addresses in his work. These approaches made him a precursor in sociology. In 1846, he published a memoir entitled Sur la Statistique morale et les principes qui doivent en former la base(On moral statistics and the principles that should form its basis), in which he raised the question of free will.
Quetelet devoted several works to politics following the revolutions of 1848. He completed his research on man and the social state by publishing Du système social et des lois qui le régissent. He also wrote a study Sur la manière dont il convient d’envisager les sciences politiques et sur l’intervention du gouvernement dans les affaires des particuliers, as well as a note on La nature des Etats constitutionnels et sur quelques principes qui en dérivent.

Meteorology

Quetelet's research at the Brussels Observatory was more focused on meteorology than on astronomy.
In 1835, the research carried out at the Observatory concerned two fields: tides, meteorological observations at the soltices and equinoxes. [38]
From 1836 to 1838, he coordinated experiments to determine the weather more precisely and to standardize the times in the different localities of the country. [39]
In 1839, he organised a series of observations on the flowering of plants. The following year, he became interested in magnetism and temperature.
In 1841, he carried out research on meteorology and began systematic day and night observations every two hours.
From 1842 onwards, he studied the physics of the globe and more particularly the diurnal and annual variations in temperature as well as the electricity of the air and atmospheric waves. These multiple experiments suggested to Quetelet the importance of a systematic generalisation of this kind of observations and of a standardisation of methods in order to compare the results. In 1842, he wrote instructions for meteorological observations, but also for the physics of the globe, the plant kingdom and the animal kingdom. [40]
In 1852, Quetelet published Sur le climat de la Belgique t.1 and t.2 containing various memoirs and notes on his meteorological observations.
In 1861, he summarised and commented on his work in the bookSur la physique du globe. In 1867, he published a book onLa météorologie de la Belgique comparée à celle du globe (The meteorology of Belgium compared to that of the globe) which takes up his previous work by insisting on the heat, the air pressure, the winds, the hygrometry, the rains, the electricity and the luminous phenomena.

The first edition of the Correspondance
History of science

As early as 1825, Quetelet published historical notes on Grégoire de St.Vincent and Gemma Frisius in the journal Correspondance mathématique et physique. [41] In 1834, he announced a series of notes on the history of science in Belgium in the Annales de l'Observatoire. [42]. In 1845, he contributed a chapter on Simon Stevin to Les Belges Illustres. Quetelet wrote two main works on the history of science, namely Histoire des sciences mathématiques et physiques chez les Belges and Sciences mathématiques et physiques chez les Belges du commencement du XIXe siècle, as well as various biographical notes on the members of the Royal Academy.


Publications


Publications at the royal academy of Brussels
  • Quetelet also wrote several articles in the Bulletin de l'Académie Royale des Sciences et des Belles-Lettres, which he founded in 1832, and in the Annuaire of this institution, which he set up in 1835.


Biographical notes


Bibliography

  • Adolphe Quetelet, 1796-1874 : Exposition documentaire présentée à la Bibliothèque royale Albert Ier, à l'occasion du centenaire de la mort d'Adolphe Quetelet : Catalogue, Bruxelles : Palais des Académies, 1974.
  • Adolphe Quetelet, 1796-1874 : Hommages et contributions, Bruxelles : Palais des Académies, 1975
  • BEIRNE, Piers, "Adolphe Quetelet and the Origins of Positivist Criminology," American Journal of Sociology 92(1987) p. 1140–1169
  • BRIEN, P., MAILLY, Nicolas-Édouard, "L. A. J. Quetelet," in Florilège des sciences en Belgique pendant le 19e et le début du 20e, Bruxelles : Académie royale de Belgique, Classe des sciences, 1968, p. 43-68.
  • BRUYLANTS, Albert, "Quetelet et Van Mons", in Bulletin de la Classe des sciences de l’ Académie royale de Belgique , 5e série, t. 40, 1974, p. 1385-1390.
  • Cent cinquante ans de vie artistique: documents et témoignages d'académiciens membres de la Classe des beaux-arts : présentés à l'occasion du cent cinquantième anniversaire de l'indépendance de la Belgique, Bruxelles : Académie royale de Belgique Classe des sciences, 1980, p .312.
  • COLLARD, A., "La vie et les œuvres d’Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874)", in Ciel et terre, t. 44, p. 210-229.
  • O’CONNOR, J.J. ROBERTSON, E.F. Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet, consulted on 4 may 2010 at 16h34.
  • DAGNELIE, Pierre,Quetelet revisité, consulted on 28 april 2010 at 16h08.
  • DE KEYSER, Nicaise, "Discours prononcé aux funérailles d’Adolphe Quetelet," in Bulletin de l'Académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts de Belgique, t. 37, 2e série, Bruxelles : Hayez, 1874, p. 248.
  • DESROSIÈRES, Alain, "Adolphe Quetelet", in le courrier des statistiques, t. 104, décembre 2002.
  • DROESBEKE, Jean-Jacques, "La place de l’enseignement dans la vie et l’oeuvre de Quetelet", in Journ@l Electronique d’Histoire des Probabilités et de la Statistique, t. 1, n° 2, novembre 2005.
  • DUFOUR, "Quelques considérations sur l'æuvre météorologique de A. Quetelet (1796-1874)", in Ciel et terre, t. 64, 1948, p. 58-71.
  • DUPRÉEL, E., Adolphe Quételet: pages choisies et commentées. Bruxelles : Office de Publicité, 1942.
  • FREUDENTHAL, Hans, "De eerste ontmoeting tussen de wiskunde en de sociale wetenschappen", in Verhandelingen van de Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schone Kunsten. KLasse der Wetenschappen XXVIII (1966) n° 88.
  • GALLAIT, Louis, "Discours prononcé aux funérailles d’Adolphe Quetelet", in Bulletin de l'Académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts de Belgique, t. 37, 2e série, Bruxelles : Hayez, 1874, p. 262.
  • GALLAIT, Louis, LIAGRE, Jean-Baptiste, HOUZEAU, Jean-Charles, FAIDER, Charles, "Inauguration de la statue d’Adolphe Quetelet, Discours", in Bulletin de l'Académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts de Belgique, t. 49, 2e série, Bruxelles : Hayez, 1880, p. 506.
  • GODEAUX, L., "Le mathématicien Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874)", in Ciel et terre, t. 26, 1928, p. 60.
  • GODEAUX, L., "L'oeuvre mathématique de Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874)," in Janus 60 (1973) p. 97-99.
  • GOSSART, Ernest, "Adolphe Quetelet et le prince Albert de Saxe-Cobourg (1836-1861)," in Bulletin de la Classe des Lettres et des Sciences Morales et Politiques de l'Académie royale de Belgique, 5e série, 1911, p. 211-254.
  • ELKHADEM, Hossam, "Histoire de la Correspondance mathématique et physique d'après les lettres de Jean-Guillaume Garnier et Adolphe Quetelet," in Bulletin de la Classe des Lettres et des Sciences Morales et Politiques de l'Académie royale de Belgique, t. 64, 1978, p. 316-366.
  • HALBWACHS, M., La théorie de l'homme moyen: essai sur Quetelet et la statistique morale, Paris : Alcan, 1912.
  • HANKINS, F.H., Adolphe Quetelet as a statistician, New York, Columbia University, 1908.
  • JOHNSON, N.L., KOTZ, S. (ed.), Leading personalities in statistical sciences, from the seventieth century to the present, New York: Wiley: 1997.
  • JULIN, Armand, "Centenaire de la Physique sociale de Quetelet," in Bulletin de la Classe des Lettres et des Sciences Morales et Politiques de l'Académie royale de Belgique, 5e série, 1935, p. 70-80.
  • KERVYN DE LETTENHOVE, Joseph-Constantin-Marie-Bruno, "Discours prononcé aux funérailles d’Adolphe Quetelet", in Bulletin de l'Académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts de Belgique, t. 37, 2e série, Bruxelles : Hayez, 1874, p. 261.
  • KOECKELENBERGH, André, "L.A.J. Quetelet, fondateur de notre Observatoire", in Ciel et Terre, t. 90, 1977, p. 477-482.
  • "Lettres inédites d'A. Quetelet",in Ciel et Terre, t. 57, 1941, p. 318.
  • KOECKELENBERGH, André,"A. L. J. Quetelet et la diffusion des sciences en Belgique au XIXe siècle", in Ciel et Terre, t. 94, 1978, p. 7-18.
  • LAHAYE, "Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874) - Ses initiatives créatrices en Géophysique", in Ciel et Terre, t. 91, 1975, p. 257-260.
  • LIAGRE, Jean-Baptiste, "Discours prononcé aux funérailles d’Adolphe Quetelet", in Bulletin de l'Académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts de Belgique, t. 37, 2e série, Bruxelles : Hayez, 1874, p. 264.
  • LOTTIN, Joseph. "Le libre arbitre et les lois sociologiques d'après Quetelet", in Revue néo-scolastique de philosophie, t. 72, 1911. pp. 479-515.
  • LOTTIN, Joseph, Quetelet statisticien et sociologue, Paris: Alcan, 1912.
  • MAILLY, Nicolas-Édouard, "Discours prononcé aux funérailles d’Adolphe Quetelet," in Bulletin de l'Académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts de Belgique, t. 37, 2e série, Bruxelles : Hayez, 1874, p. 251.
  • MAILLY, Nicolas-Édouard, Essai sur la vie et les ouvrages de L.-A.-J. Quetelet, Bruxelles : Hayez, 1875.
  • Mémorial Adolphe Quetelet : publié à l’occasion du centième anniversaire de sa mort, Bruxelles : Académie royale de Belgique, Classe des sciences, 1977.
  • "Notice sur Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques Quetelet", in Annales de l'Observatoire Royal de Bruxelles, vol. 23, p. 1-6
  • PORTER, Theodore M. "The Mathematics of Society: Variation and Error in Quetelet's Statistics", The British Journal for the History of Science 18 (1985) p. 51-69
  • PORTER, Théodore M., "Adolphe Quetelet, een boegbeeld van de wiskunde", in Geschiedenis van de wetenschappen in België, 1815-2000], sous la dir. De Robert Halleux, t.1, Bruxelles, Dexia/La Renaissance du Livre, 2001, p. 90-99.
  • PUTZEYS, "Discours prononcé aux funérailles d’Adolphe Quetelet," in Bulletin de l'Académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts de Belgique, t. 37, 2e série, Bruxelles : Hayez, 1874, p. 258.
  • RODRIGUEZ MARTINEZ, Gerardo, MORENO AZNAR Luis A., SARRÍA CHUECAL, Antonio,"Sobre el índice de Quetelet y obesidad," in Revista Española de Obesidad 8 (2010) p. 34-40
  • SHEYNIN, O.B., "A. Quetelet as a statistician," in: Archive for History of Exact Sciences, 36 (1986) 281-325.
  • STIGLER, S.M., The history of statistics: the measurement of uncertainty before 1900, Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press, 1986.
  • VAN DE VELDE, A.J.J., "De genealogie der familie Quetelet," in Jaarboek Kon. Vl. Acad. voor Wet. Lett. Sch. Kunsten, Bruxelles, 1947, p. 192-212.
  • VANPAEMEL, Geert, "Quetelet et la statistique / Quetelet en de statistiek," in Bulletin Astronomique/Astronomisch Bulletin XI (1996), p. 29-39.
  • WAXWEILER, Émile, "Quetelet (Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques)", in Biographie Nationale, t. 18, Bruxelles : Bruylant-Christophe & Cie, imprimeurs-éditeurs, 1905, col. 477-494.
  • WELLENS-DE DONDER, Liliane, "La correspondance d'Adolphe Quetelet," in Archives et bibliothèques de Belgique, 35 (1964), n° 1, pp. 49-66.
  • WELLENS-DE DONDER, Liliane, "Une lettre de Cécile Quetelet relative à la révolution belge de 1830", in Cahiers bruxellois, t. 6 , Bruxelles, 1961, p. 68-75.
  • WELLENS-DE DONDER, Liliane, CALCOEN, Roger, "Adolphe Quetelet", in Spiegel Historiael 12 (1977) p. 110-115.
  • WESTERGRAAD, H., Contributions to the history of statistics, London: King, 1932.
  • Further references are given on the website of the School of Mathematical and Computational Sciences de l’University of St Andrews.
  • Quetelet's correspondence is kept at the Royal Academy of Belgium. The inventory is published in WELLENS-DE DONDER, Liliane, Inventaire de la correspondance d'Adolphe Quetelet déposée à l'Académie royale de Belgique in Académie royale de Belgique. Classe des Sciences. Mémoires t. XXXVII, fasc. 2, 1966.


Notes

  1. ↑ O’CONNOR, J.J. ROBERTSON, E.F. Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet, consulted on 4 may 2010 at 16h34.
  2. ↑ BRIEN, P., MAILLY, Nicolas-Édouard, "L. A. J. Quetelet", in Florilège des sciences en Belgique pendant le 19e et le début du 20e, Bruxelles : Académie royale de Belgique Classe des sciences, 1968, p. 43.
  3. ↑ DROESBEKE, Jean-Jacques, La place de l’enseignement dans la vie et l’oeuvre de Quetelet, Journ@l électronique d’Histoire des Probabilités et de la Statistique/ Electronic Journal for History of Probability and Statistics’’ Vol.1, n°2. Novembre 2005, consulted on 13 may 2010 at 14h.
  4. ↑ DAGNELIE, Pierre,Quetelet revisité, consulted on 28 april 2010 at 16h08, p. 8.
  5. ↑ PORTER, Théodore M., "Adolphe Quetelet, een boegbeeld van de wiskunde", in Geschiedenis van de wetenschappen in België, 1815-2000], sous la dir. de Robert Halleux, t.1, Bruxelles, Dexia/La Renaissance du Livre, 2001, p. 91.
  6. ↑ Almanach de la cour de Bruxelles sous les dominations autrichienne et française, la monarchie des Pays-Bas et le gouvernement belge de 1725 à 1840, Bruxelles : H. Tarlier, 1864, p. 366.
  7. ↑ WELLENS-DE DONDER, L., Le premier rapport d'Adolphe Quetelet sur la création d'un observatoire dans les provinces méridionales du Royaume des Pays-Bas, Academia Analecta 49 (1987) 2, 115-130.
  8. ↑ KOECKELENBERGH, André, "L.A.J. Quetelet, fondateur de notre Observatoire", in Ciel et Terre, t. 90, 1977, p. 477.
  9. ↑ PORTER, Théodore M., "Adolphe Quetelet, een boegbeeld van de wiskunde", in Geschiedenis van de wetenschappen in België, 1815-2000], sous la dir. de Robert Halleux, t.1, Bruxelles, Dexia/La Renaissance du Livre, 2001, p. 91.
  10. ↑ VANPAEMEL, Geert, "Onderwijs voor de meer beschaafde klasse. Het Museum voor Wetenschappen en Letteren te Brussel (1826-1834)", in Scientiarum Historia 23 (1997) 3-19.
  11. ↑ BRIEN, P., MAILLY, Nicolas-Édouard, "L. A. J. Quetelet", in Florilège des sciences en Belgique pendant le 19e et le début du 20e, Bruxelles : Académie royale de Belgique Classe des sciences, 1968, p. 51.
  12. ↑ QUETELET, Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques, "Essai sur la Romance", in Annales de Belgique, 1823.
  13. ↑ ELKHADEM, Hossam, "Histoire de la Correspondance mathématique et physique d'après les lettres de Jean-Guillaume Garnier et Adolphe Quetelet", in Bulletin de la Classe des Lettres et des Sciences Morales et Politiques de l'Académie royale de Belgique, 64 (1978), p. 316-366. WAXWEILER, Émile, "Quetelet (Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques)", in Biographie Nationale, t. 18, Bruxelles : Bruylant-Christophe & Cie, imprimeurs-éditeurs, 1905, col. 479.
  14. ↑ WAXWEILER, Émile, "Quetelet (Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques)", in Biographie Nationale, t. 18, Bruxelles : Bruylant-Christophe & Cie, imprimeurs-éditeurs, 1905, col. 479.
  15. ↑ BRACKE, Nele, Een monument voor het land. Overheidsstatistiek in België 1795-1870. Gand : Academia Press, 2008.
  16. ↑ Almanach de la cour de Bruxelles sous les dominations autrichienne et française, la monarchie des Pays-Bas et le gouvernement belge de 1725 à 1840, Bruxelles : H. Tarlier, 1864, p. 367.
  17. ↑ DAGNELIE, Pierre,Quetelet revisité, consulted on 28 april 2010 at 16h08, p. 9.
  18. ↑ WELLENS-DE DONDER, L., Les premiers voyages scientifiques de Quetelet et la fondation de l'Observatoire de Bruxelles, Bulletin Astronomique XI (1996) 95-104.
  19. ↑ BRIEN, P., MAILLY, Nicolas-Édouard, "L. A. J. Quetelet", in Florilège des sciences en Belgique pendant le 19e et le début du 20e, Bruxelles : Académie royale de Belgique Classe des sciences, 1968, p. 54.
  20. ↑ BRIEN, P., MAILLY, Nicolas-Édouard, "L. A. J. Quetelet", in Florilège des sciences en Belgique pendant le 19e et le début du 20e, Bruxelles : Académie royale de Belgique Classe des sciences, 1968, p. 67.
  21. ↑ DAGNELIE, Pierre,Quetelet revisité, consulted on 28 april 2010 at 16h08, p. 26.
  22. ↑ BRACKE, Nele, Een monument voor het land. Overheidsstatistiek in België 1795-1870. Gand : Academia Press, 2008. WAXWEILER, Émile, "Quetelet (Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques)", in Biographie Nationale, t. 18, Bruxelles : Bruylant-Christophe & Cie, imprimeurs-éditeurs, 1905, col. 488.
  23. ↑ HOUVENAGHEL, G., "La conférence maritime de Bruxelles en 1853: première conférence océanographique internationale", in Met zicht op zee. Zeewetenschappelijk onderzoek in de Lage Landen na 1800 sous la dir. de A. De Knecht-Van Eekelen et G. Vanpaemel, Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1990, p. 42-49.
  24. ↑ BRIAN, E., "Observations sur les origines et sur les activités du congrès international de statistique (1853-1876)", in: Bulletin de l’Institut International de Statistique, LIII (1989) 1, pp.121-139.
  25. ↑ WAXWEILER, Émile, "Quetelet (Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques)", in Biographie Nationale, t. 18, Bruxelles : Bruylant-Christophe & Cie, imprimeurs-éditeurs, 1905, col. 491.
  26. ↑ Site de l'American Statistical Association, consulted on 5 may 2010 at 11h50.
  27. ↑ DAGNELIE, Pierre,Quetelet revisité, consulted on 28 april 2010 at 16h08, p. 26.
  28. ↑ SAUVAL, Jacques, "Adolphe Quetelet et les étoiles filantes", in Bulletin Astronomique XI (1996) p. 67-82.
    SAUVAL, Jacques, "Quetelet and the Discovery of the First Meteor Showers", in WGN, Journal of the International Meteor Organization, 25, 1997, p. 21-33.
  29. ↑ transl.:New Catalogue of the principal appearances of shooting stars
  30. ↑ VANPAEMEL, G. et VAN TIGGELEN, B., "Science for the people. The Belgian Encyclopédie populaire and the constitution of a national science movement", in: Popularising Science and Technology in the European Periphery, 1800-2000 sous la dir. de Faidra Papanelopoulou, Agustí Nieto-Galan , Enrique Perdiguero, Ahgate, 2009. p. 65-88.
  31. ↑ QUETELET, Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques, "Recherches sur la loi de la croissance de l’homme", in Nouveaux mémoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences et Belles-Lettres de Bruxelles, t. 7, Bruxelles: M. Hayez, 1832, p. 1-32.
    QUETELET, Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques, "Recherches sur le penchant pour le crime aux différens âges", in Nouveaux mémoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences et Belles-Lettres de Bruxelles, t. 7, Bruxelles: M. Hayez, 1832, p. 1-83.
    QUETELET, Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques, "Recherches sur le poids de l'homme aux différens âges", in Nouveaux mémoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences et Belles-Lettres de Bruxelles, t. 7, Bruxelles: M. Hayez, 1832, p. 1-44.
  32. ↑ QUETELET, Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques, "Recherches sur le penchant pour le crime aux différens âges", in Nouveaux mémoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences et Belles-Lettres de Bruxelles, t. 7, Bruxelles: M. Hayez, 1832, p. 1-83.
    The same idea is also found in his later Sur l’homme et le développement des ses facultés, ou Essais de physique sociale t. 1& t. 2,Paris : Bachelier, imprimeur-libraire, 1835.
  33. ↑ Paris : Bachelier, imprimeur-libraire, 1835.
  34. ↑ Bulletin de la commission centrale de statistique, t. 2, Bruxelles : Hayez, 1843.
  35. ↑ Bruxelles, 1846.
  36. ↑ QUETELET, Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques, Tables de mortalité d’après le recensement de 1856, Bruxelles : Hayez, 1857.
    QUETELET, Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques, Tables de mortalités pour le Brabant, s.l ., 1859.
    QUETELET, Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques, Tables de mortalités, 1866.
  37. ↑ QUETELET, Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques, Sur la statistique générale des différents pays, Bruxelles : Hayez, 1862 .
    QUETELET, Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques, Statistique internationale de la population, 1865.
    QUETELET, Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques, Progrès des travaux statistiques, s.l., 1868.
    QUETELET, Lambert-Adolphe-Jacques, Statistiques internationales : plan adopté par les délégués du congrès de statistique de la Haye, Bruxelles : Hayez, 1869.
  38. ↑ BRIEN, P., MAILLY, Nicolas-Édouard, "L. A. J. Quetelet", in Florilège des sciences en Belgique pendant le 19e et le début du 20e, Bruxelles : Académie royale de Belgique Classe des sciences, 1968, p. 55.
  39. ↑ VAN BOXMEER, H., Quetelet et l'établissement des méridiennes in : Bulletin Astronomique XI (1996) 53-66.
  40. ↑ DEMAREE, G.R., "Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874): Précurseur du réseau belge d'observations climatologiques", in Bulletin astronomique XI (1996), 41-50.
  41. ↑ Collard, Auguste, "Adolphe Quetelet, historien des sciences et biographe",in Ciel et Terre, 45, 1929, p. 89-92,p. 127-145.
  42. ↑ "Documents pour l'histoire des sciences en Belgique", in Annales de l'Observatoire 1835, p. 245-248.
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